NSW State of the Environment 2012

SoE 2012 > Land > 3.1 Management of soils and land

Land chapter 3

3.1 Management of soils and land

Soil resources in New South Wales are in fair condition overall, both on a statewide basis and at the regional scale. Significant land degradation issues still remain. Increasing pressures on soil resources are a result of growing populations, increasing intensification of agriculture and degrading vegetation conditions.

Significant specific land degradation concerns are apparent across the state, with 74% of the 124 priority soil monitoring units examined being rated as poor or very poor for at least one degradation hazard.

Conservation farming practices such as reduced tillage have helped improve soil condition generally – soil structure in particular – and also control erosion. The extent to which they improve organic carbon levels and prevent acidification is less clear and these remain issues. Wind erosion is an ongoing concern in the western parts of the state. Both inland and coastal acid sulfate soils have improved in condition with wetter seasons recently and ongoing rehabilitation initiatives.

Land and soil capability and land use have been mapped across NSW for the first time showing the capability of the state's soil resources and the land-use pressures on those soils. Current land management practices are broadly sustainable and generally lead to only a moderate risk of degradation but the level of risk varies across soil health indicators and catchment management areas.

NSW indicators

Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2012 at the front of the report.

Introduction

The economic and ecological prosperity of NSW depends in part on improving soil health and ensuring that land is managed and used sustainably. Despite improved soil health in some areas in recent years, human-induced soil degradation remains widespread due to the high levels of disturbance from traditional approaches to preparing the land for cropping. Major climatic events, such as high intensity rainfall and prolonged droughts, can also exacerbate land degradation processes. Soil degradation represents one of the most difficult environmental management problems facing NSW and reflects a global trend in the decline of finite soil resources (Bai et al. 2008).

A key factor constraining the sustainable use of soil is that it is essentially a non-renewable resource, as soil formation is an extremely slow process. Soil renewal rates are very slow and beyond human time frames (Bui et al. 2010).

Some impacts from land use, such as dryland salinity, have a time lag before changes become evident and may continue to unfold over a number of decades. Cumulative exposure of land to inappropriate practices increases the risk of incremental and often significant degradation. The consequences of some types of land degradation, such as soil loss from accelerated erosion, dryland and irrigation salinity, and subsoil acidity, are long term and often irreversible. Other forms of degradation, such as nutrient decline and surface soil acidification, can be remediated if addressed early, but this can be very expensive (Lockwood et al. 2003).

Status and trends

Soils make a significant contribution to the prosperity of NSW, but this comes at a considerable cost. A significant proportion of the state is experiencing at least one form of soil degradation and many areas are facing a number (NSW SSPWG 2008). Degradation in some areas was noted decades ago (SCS 1989). Although improvements in soil health have been evident in some areas in recent years, human-induced soil degradation continues elsewhere, remaining widespread due to historic factors and representing one of the most difficult environmental management problems facing the state (NSW SSPWG 2008).

There is a critical and ongoing need to better understand the impacts of land use and management practices on the state's soils and continuously improve them so NSW is able to meet the demands placed on its terrestrial ecosystems by current and future generations. The land's capacity to meet these demands is constrained by intrinsic factors (such as soil properties, water availability and climatic variability) and extrinsic social and cultural factors (for example, rural population decline).

This section presents a snapshot of the health of NSW soils, taking into account recent trends relating to weather. Note that the terms 'soil health' and 'soil condition' are used interchangeably.

Soil health across NSW

Soil health is the ability of soil to deliver essential ecosystem services, including decomposition, nutrient transformation, exchange and cycling, water partitioning, climate regulation (such as through carbon storage and cycling), provision of habitat for biota, and provision of media for primary production and food resources.

Soil health is characterised by testing key soil attributes that can be used as soil health indicators at appropriate sites. NSW uses eight indicators which relate to soil characteristics (soil acidity, soil carbon, soil structure, acid sulfate soils and soil salinity) and soil processes (sheet, gully and wind erosion) as described in Table 3.1. A quantitative value is derived by comparing the current state of the indicator with that of an undisturbed 'reference' soil under natural conditions (Chapman et al. 2011).

Table 3.1: Soil health indicators

Notes: The NSW Government has not systematically monitored the condition of inland acid sulfate soils, but has surveyed land management actions that might cause their acidification.

Soil health indicators can be combined in various ways to produce soil health indexes. For example, a soil health index for a particular region may be based on data for all the soil health indicators for that area; alternatively, data on a particular soil health indicator from many regions may be used to produce an overall index for that indicator. The state soil health index is an overarching index that combines all the soil health indicator data from regions across NSW. Indexes are a useful way of looking at what is happening overall. However, information can be lost when data is averaged and therefore indexes should not be used to make site-based management decisions.

The most recent systematic statewide assessment of NSW soil health was undertaken under the NSW Natural Resources Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Strategy 2010–2015 (MER Strategy) (DECCW 2010a) and commenced in 2008. The monitoring program aimed to establish a baseline of NSW soil condition by setting up a permanent network of condition monitoring sites. For soil acidity, soil carbon and soil structure, this means up to 10 monitoring sites in each of 10 priority soil monitoring units (SMUs) in all of the 12 rural catchment management authority (CMA) regions and four SMUs in the Sydney Metropolitan area, a total of 1240 sites. SMUs were selected on the basis of their importance, expected changes in use and number of soil issues present. Where possible, sites were paired on the same soil type but across different land uses, including undisturbed reference sites. Approximately 6% of sites across the state (around 50) are in national parks, state forests and nature reserves and these are commonly used as reference or control sites (Chapman et al. 2011).

A program of soil data collection, with laboratory analysis, was undertaken at each site, together with the collection of land management data. By May 2009, 850 sites had been established and full laboratory testing took another two years to complete. The MER program provides most of the data used to assess soil condition and the extent of sustainable land management, as reported in this chapter. This dataset will provide a valuable baseline allowing changes in NSW soil resources and land management behaviour to be assessed into the future.

Updated soil health indicator ratings for CMAs in NSW (seven ratings each for the south coast CMA and the nine inland CMAs, and eight ratings each for the remaining three coastal CMAs) and the state as a whole have been derived using the updated MER data. Additional data was collected for acid sulfate soils (Tulau 2010). Advances in modelling using improved digital elevation models and time series-based satellite monitoring of ground cover also allowed data on sheet erosion to be updated (Yang et al. 2011).

The results indicate that, on a statewide basis, soils in NSW are in fair condition. On average, there has been a noticeable and moderate decline in the condition of NSW soils relative to their undisturbed reference condition. There has also been a moderate loss in the ability of NSW soils to provide ecosystem services, including agricultural productivity.

Some parts of the state and some particular soil condition indicators, however, are in an overall poorer condition and exhibit a significant loss of soil function. When considering the 94 reported soil condition ratings, 38% are in good condition, 46% are fair and 16% are in poor condition. Of the state's 124 SMUs, 74% were rated as poor or very poor for at least one degradation hazard. This indicates that although most regions appear to have broadly stable soil conditions, significant specific issues of land degradation remain.

Figure 3.1 depicts the proportion of soil monitoring sites that fall into the four classes of soil health for each of the soil health indicators.

Map 3.1 presents the most dominant soil health issue, according to the relative cost of rectification, within each SMU. The results suggest that on a statewide basis, low soil carbon and sheet erosion are moderate issues of concern, with soil structure and salinity also being of concern. Acid sulfate soils are of significant concern in some coastal and drying inland riverine areas. Map 3.1 shows that sheet erosion and salinity are the critical soil condition issues in the eastern part of the state, while wind erosion and soil carbon decline dominate in the west. Further details on the apparent recent trends are provided in the following discussion.

Figure 3.1: Proportion of soil monitoring sites within each soil health indicator category

Source: NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH) data 2012

Notes: Data from the 2009 MER Strategy soils project published in SoE 2009 (DECCW 2009) has been augmented with further testing of MER samples, re-analysis of the full MER dataset, and the inclusion of new unpublished data on inland acid sulfate soils and sheet erosion.

Map 3.1: Dominant soil health issues within soil monitoring units in NSW

Notes: Areas of 'no data' fall outside the soil monitoring units' dataset, but other information may be available about them.

Recent trends in soil health

Much of the observed decline in the condition of NSW soils can be attributed to historic management approaches. Since the 1990s, there have been improvements in soil management, such as conservation farming and cell grazing, that can help minimise further loss of soil condition. The analysis of recent land-use and management practices over NSW reported in the 'Pressures' section below supports the ongoing improvement in sustainable land management.

The interaction of seasonal weather conditions with land use or land management actions can increase the risk of land degradation that affects soil health. Over the last two years, with the end of the drought, degradation hazards such as wind erosion and acid sulfate soils have diminished with the wetter conditions. However severe widespread flooding in the summers of 2010 and 2011 exacerbated erosion, mass movement and salinity because ground cover had not yet re-established after years of drought.

The impacts of recent events on selected soil health indicators, including wet conditions, are discussed below.

Soil acidity

Increased soil acidification is expected in southern NSW as a result of higher summer rains and a shift toward canola production. Grazing on fertilised annual pastures is also contributing to acidification. Agricultural lime is normally used to ameliorate acidity with usage increasing over recent years. 'Land management within capability' analysis reveals this issue is being managed the least sustainably of all potential land and soil hazards across NSW.

Soil carbon

Benign wet and milder growing conditions have led to increases in pasture and plant growth which, combined with low stock numbers after the drought, are generally expected to increase carbon levels in soil. Organic carbon is assessed as being a moderate issue of concern across the state, with land management for this issue being broadly sustainable.

Soil structure

A generally increasing uptake of conservation farming techniques and low stocking rates after the drought have seen improvements in soil structure. Saturated soils are particularly prone to structure decline from mechanical disturbances, such as machinery traffic, stock movement and cultivation, but the extent of any recent damage is not known. Structure decline is a particular issue in areas with sodic surface soils.

Acid sulfate soils

Acid sulfate soils have generally improved in condition with rehabilitation initiatives, better land management practices and continuing wetter seasons.

Soil salinity

Above-average rainfall in 2010 and 2011 has caused groundwater levels to rise and remobilise the salt which had previously concentrated in the soil during drier conditions. As a result, increases in stream salinity levels have been observed and previously inactive salinity sites are becoming active again (Allan Nicholson, OEH, pers. comm., 24 May 2012). There is a lag time between climatic events and the expression of salinity symptoms, so the area of land affected may increase again in response to the recent wetter conditions. This is significant because agricultural productivity is substantially reduced in areas affected by salinity. Also salt present on the soil surface is more likely to be dispersed into the wider environment, including waters. Land management for this hazard is broadly sustainable on a statewide basis.

Sheet erosion

Sheet erosion has increased over most of NSW with the exception of the Murray, Murrumbidgee and Lachlan floodplains over the last 10 years. Following the breaking of the drought in 2010, continuing wet conditions have resulted in improved ground cover due to the soil moisture available. However, analysis of sheet erosion rates compared with the amount of bare soil vulnerable to erosion shows that over the last two years increases in ground cover have been insufficient to effectively reduce erosion. A reduction in severe bushfires has brought with it less erosion in bushland.

Land management for this hazard is broadly sustainable on a statewide basis using the 'land management within capability' analysis in the 'Pressures' section below.

Gully erosion

Increased rainfall from two consecutive La Niña events in eastern Australia since April 2010 has increased concentrated channel flow, worsening gully and streambank erosion. Gully erosion is a concern on the north coast and western slopes and tablelands. It is generally associated with unstable granite-based soils and dispersible (sodic) subsoils on rolling to moderate slopes. Over the longer time scale, however, land management for this hazard appears to be broadly sustainable.

Wind erosion

Wind erosion is a significant issue of concern in the western regions of the state. It is only an issue in limited areas of the central regions and is stable in eastern regions. Data from the DustWatch network shows that during the current reporting period, dusty conditions peaked in north-western NSW in spring 2009 and then declined substantially with 2010's record-breaking rainfall. In south-western NSW, retention of adequate ground cover during autumn, especially in years of below-average rainfall, remains a critical factor in the management of wind erosion (John Leys, OEH, pers. comm., 23 May 2012). 'Land management within capability' analysis reveals this issue as one of the least sustainably managed of all potential land and soil hazards across NSW, particularly in the western regions (see the 'Pressures' section below).

The worst dust storm to hit Sydney since reliable records began in 1940 lasted for nine hours from the morning of 23 September 2009 and reduced visibility at the airport to 400 metres. The dust storm was the product of drought and extreme wind conditions. The source of the dust was the red sandplains of western NSW and the sandplains, riverine channels and lakebeds of the lower Lake Eyre Basin and Queensland's Channel Country. The rate of dust loss off the coast near Sydney peaked at over 70,000 tonnes per hour with an estimated 2.54 million tonnes of total suspended particulate sediment deposited off the Australian coast along the 3000-kilometre-long storm front. Impacts and costs included increases in respiratory diseases and traffic accidents; cancelled air, road and ferry services; power supply disruptions; and the cost of cleaning homes, businesses, machinery and infrastructure (Leys et al. 2011).

Future trends in soil health

Climate changes – including higher temperatures and evaporation levels, along with generally lower but more erratic and more intense summer-dominated rainfall – are predicted to lead to various increased pressures on NSW soils.

Soil acidity

Changes in rainfall and evaporation are likely to affect leaching and therefore modify soil acidification in many areas. In the south of the state, reduced winter rainfall is expected to decrease the amount of deep drainage and, in turn, soil acidification (DECCW 2010b). However, acidification is likely to remain a problem because leaching is only one of its causes and changes in particular areas will depend on local factors.

Soil carbon

Hotter dryer conditions, especially in the south, are expected to reduce soil carbon (DECCW 2010b).

Acid sulfate soils

Major changes are likely in the character and development of acid sulfate soils on coastal plains. Initially, a change in the seasonality of rainfall is expected to increase the production and mobilisation of acid. However, reductions in acid development will occur over the next 50–100 years as watertables rise with sea levels (DECCW 2010b).

Soil salinity

Likely changes in rainfall and evaporation in all regions will have an impact on the balance between runoff and overland flows, and shallow drainage and deep drainage. These changes are expected to affect the mobilisation and concentration of salts, with responses differing between catchments. Impacts on soil salinity are likely to be complex and difficult to predict. Whether salinity will increase or decrease in particular areas will depend on local factors for each catchment (DECCW 2010b).

Soil erosion

Changing climatic conditions are likely to have implications for agriculture and food production in NSW because of an increased frequency of drought, a declining availability of water (from changes to both rainfall and evaporation), and altered storm and flooding patterns. The resulting poorer growing conditions will reduce vegetation cover and increase soil erosion, especially in the vulnerable sodic soils of the western clay plains of NSW. The consequent soil erosion will heighten the need to increase the resilience of water infrastructure and land management systems (Climate Commission 2011).

The combination of more intense storms, especially in summer and spring, and an overall reduction in vegetative ground cover (possibly exacerbated by changes to bushfire regimes) is likely to lead to more sheet and rill erosion and increased gully erosion if overland runoff increases. Wind erosion could also increase due to the loss of protective vegetation, especially grasses and other ground-cover plants (DECCW 2010b).

Pressures

Pressures on soil condition are primarily due in the short term to weather conditions and land management actions, often in combination. The extent of risk and type of degradation depends on the resilience of the soil and vegetation cover to withstand degrading processes. Over the long term, land management is the prime determinant of soil condition. Land management tools and techniques will need to be adapted to maintain or improve soils as climate change impacts become more apparent.

'Land use' is defined as the purpose to which land is put (such as forestry or cropping) whereas 'land management' operations are the detailed activities involved in undertaking the land use (such as tree thinning or stubble burning). 'Land capability' is the inherent capacity of land to sustain land use or land management risks or pressures. It is the intensity of disturbance – created by human intervention, coupled with seasonal conditions and features of the land (such as soil type and slope) – which carries a risk of land degradation. Prolonged exposure to risk increases the probability of a loss in soil condition. The degree of land degradation in turn depends on the resilience or capability of the land.

Pressures that influence land use and land management are numerous and involve economic, social and environmental factors. Land use and land management regimes can sometimes lead to improvements in soil condition or prevention of its deterioration (Strudley et al. 2008). On the other hand, inappropriate land management practices can place land at a risk of significant degradation. The key to sustainable land management is to understand the processes that lead to land degradation at any particular place and then manage the land within its inherent capability.

Land management decisions are often made with imperfect knowledge of future weather and markets. As fuel becomes more expensive and competition for essential resources like water and fertilisers increases, there will be significant challenges to sustainably managing the land (Cribb 2010). This will be exacerbated in the future by increased population pressures: for example, a 70% increase in global demand for food is predicted by 2050 (CSIRO 2012). These pressures will be coupled with the expected climate change effects of drying and extreme weather events for much of NSW (DECCW 2010b). Changes in climate are expected to lead to changes in land use as well as changes in land management.

This section considers how land capability is assessed and whether current NSW land use and land management practices are conducted within the land's capability.

Assessment of land capability

While many land degradation causes and processes are understood, the complex relationships between variable climate and interdependent land management risks and the cumulative impacts on soil condition are difficult to assess or readily quantify (Bennett et al. 2010).

To help assess these complex relationships, the NSW Government developed the Land and Soil Capability (LSC) classification system. This is a rules-based approach for allocating land into one of eight land and soil capability classes based on both on-site and off-site limitations of the land, that is, the resilience of land to withstand the various known impacts of land use and land management.

Within each class there are limitations caused by differences in climate, soil type, existing erosion, slope, landform position, acidity, salinity, drainage, rockiness and a range of other factors. Each limitation has its own sub-rule set and each has to be managed to avoid land degradation and make full use of the potential of the land.

Map 3.2 is the land and soil capability map for NSW. Land shown in green has the most resilience to withstand disturbance and land in red the least.

Map 3.2: Land and soil capability in NSW

The distribution of the most limiting types of land and soil hazard (including, for example, soil erosion, salinity and rockiness) using the land and soil capability map is shown in Map 3.3. Where more than one land and soil hazard is present within the same land and soil capability class, the most difficult to remediate is shown on the map.

Map 3.3: Most limiting land and soil hazards in NSW

Unless land is used and managed within its natural capability, there is a risk of land degradation and permanent loss of many ecosystem services including biological (photosynthetic) productivity. For example, a parcel of land may be capable of being used for grazing but if not managed within capability, such as overgrazing by failing to reduce stock during drought, it would be placed at risk of degradation.

Land capability has been compared against current land use in NSW and then against land management actions using available records of land management practices by landholders from the network of soil condition monitoring sites.

Land use within capability

The land and soil capability and land-use maps for NSW have been combined for the first time in Map 3.4 using technical limit rules developed for the assessment of land and soil capability classes for activities that are common to land uses. These rules give the 'upper sustainable' LSC class, that is, the class beyond which the land use is no longer sustainable (Gray et al. 2011). This was done to provide a statewide view of the extent of land use within capability in NSW. Land uses such as industrial, infrastructure, mining and urban (which together occupy about 2% of NSW) are not included as they are not primarily used for the provision of soil ecosystem services.

Map 3.4: Land use within capability in NSW

The areas assessed as being at significant risk of degradation as a result of land use are not large: rather there are clusters of locations where the land use is marginal for the district. Many of these are associated with irrigation on the western slopes and plains and are being degraded by salinity. They occur on the black soil plains of the Gwydir and Barwon rivers and in the Lachlan around Rankins Springs, the Murray irrigation areas south of Balranald, and lakebed irrigation areas of the Western Division. Other examples of significant risk are market gardening in coastal areas and sugar cane cropping on coastal acid sulfate soils. Slight to moderate risks of degradation are also due to cropping and grazing on marginal land that is either too steep or located in the drier parts of the Western Division.

The vast majority of NSW is used for grazing/cropping, forestry and nature conservation. As is expected, more intensive land uses are at greatest risk of being used beyond natural capability.

Land-use trends

Land-use changes that involve greater levels of soil disturbance carry a high risk of reducing soil condition. In many parts of NSW, land use is changing to more intense types as the population increases, particularly along the coast and near major urban areas. These areas have growing populations (see Table 1.1 in People and the Environment 1.1) and this can lead to intensification of soil disturbance on all types of land.

Conversely, isolated parts of the state are becoming less populated with fewer people of working age available to manage pests and weeds, thereby increasing the risks of further land degradation. In parts of western NSW, for example, the control of overgrazing by feral goats and loss of ground cover associated with invasive native scrub is becoming increasingly problematic (Ballard et al. 2011; Kimball & Chuk 2011). In addition, declining farm profitability and/or poor terms of trade can also lead to more intensive production activities (see SoE 2009, Land 5.1 'Status and trends' and Appendix 2 'Private landholder capacity to manage natural resources').

Land management within capability

Appropriate land management is vital for the sustainable use of soil and land resources. Managing land within its capability is the primary means in NSW for maintaining soil condition and valuable ecosystem services. Although different land uses are associated with landscape and soil health, it is the suite of land management practices employed within particular land uses that is more directly associated with landscape and soil health. For example, different land management practices used in cropping systems (such as direct drill vs ploughing) may have a bigger impact than the choice of land use (such as irrigated vs non-irrigated cropping). Land management is often inappropriate where it does not adequately consider soil properties or seasonal conditions.

Eight soil health indicators are used to describe the current status of soil health, with a composite Soil Health Index providing a statewide summary. The same indicators (but with waterlogging combined with salinity) are used to describe the overall sustainability of current land use and land management practices and how well individual land degradation hazards are being managed to reduce the risk of them occurring. This is important, given the lag between changes in land use or management practices and the subsequent appearance of land degradation or recovery. Soil health indicators, in contrast, describe the current status of soil health.

Site-based 2008–09 landholder data, which has become fully available since SoE 2009, was recently assessed against rules provided in the MER land management technical report (Gray et al. 2011). The analysis involved the quantitative comparison of land management actions at the 662 sites against their Land and Soil Capability ratings.

Map 3.5 shows the main issues of concern for land management within capability, that is the potential land degradation hazards most likely to need control for various soil monitoring units in NSW, based on the re-assessment of 2008–09 data.

On a statewide basis, the results suggest that, overall, land in NSW is being managed at a level in accordance with its inherent physical capability, although there are widespread issues of concern. The overall index for Land Management within Capability across the state is 3.7 (in a 1-to-5 rating scheme) suggesting overall 'fair' land management relative to capability. However, individual hazards are being unsustainably managed over many areas. Of the individual sites examined, 53% had a 'poor' or 'very poor' rating for at least one hazard. In these areas, there is a risk of ongoing land degradation from particular hazards that are not currently being adequately managed.

The results suggest that on a statewide basis, all hazards are being managed fairly sustainably. However, acidification, wind erosion, salinity/waterlogging and organic carbon decline are the land degradation issues that are being managed the least sustainably.

Map 3.5: Dominant land management issues within NSW soil monitoring units

Notes: The map only presents assessments for soil monitoring units with adequate data.
The map shows the land degradation hazards that potentially need to be controlled to ensure land is managed within its capability into the future. As such, the mapping should not be viewed as representing current, on-ground conditions.

Land management trends

Continuing improvement in the extent of sustainable land management throughout NSW is a broad, long-term trend, as reported in SoE 2009. The recent updated MER results presented here confirm this trend, but cannot provide precise information on trends since 2009.

Increasing use of practices, such as crop stubble retention, no-till farming, fallow weed control, precision farming and controlled traffic, are leading to improvements in soil structure, soil moisture storage, soil carbon utilisation and more efficient use of pesticides and fertilisers.

Stock levels that were depleted during the drought are being rebuilt on recovering pastures, reducing the prevalence of overgrazing. Increased adoption of cell grazing has led to improved ground-cover management in these areas. Some soil structural damage from trampling stock compacting wet soils may be expected.

Responses

Managing and protecting the soils of NSW involves initiatives and programs at the state, regional and federal levels. These all ultimately aim to promote the adoption of sustainable land management practices by all landholders across NSW.

Established responses

State level activities

The NSW Government guides natural resource management throughout the state through NSW 2021: A plan to make NSW number one (NSW Government 2011) and various legislation, policies, strategies and programs.

NSW 2021 is the Government's 10-year plan for NSW. Goal 22 in NSW 2021 is to 'Protect our natural environment'. One of the targets listed to help achieve this goal is to 'Protect and conserve land, biodiversity and native vegetation.' The protection of NSW soil and land resources is a key component of the current plan for NSW. It contains commitments to protect and restore priority lands and strategic agricultural land, and improve agricultural productivity. The NSW Natural Resources Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Strategy 2010–2015 (MER Strategy) (DECCW 2010a) is being implemented to monitor progress towards all Goal 22 targets, with its associated program providing for the collection and analysis of information relating to soil condition and land management.

Important legislation providing for the protection and management of soil and lands in NSW includes the following.

• The Soil Conservation Act 1938 provides for the conservation of soil and farm water resources and the mitigation of erosion. It establishes the Soil Conservation Service, a state-owned soil conservation and environmental consulting business.
• The Native Vegetation Act 2003 regulates the clearing of native vegetation on all land in NSW, with some exceptions, by outlining requirements for landowners when they clear native vegetation. Proposals for broadscale clearing of native vegetation must be assessed to determine whether this will improve or maintain environmental outcomes using the Environmental Outcomes Assessment Methodology. This methodology establishes specific criteria for the assessment of impacts on land and soils when clearing is being considered.
• The Catchment Management Authorities Act 2003 established 13 catchment management authorities (CMAs) and outlined their responsibility for natural resource management.

Various other Acts provide direct and indirect mechanisms for soil protection and management, including the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997, Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 and Crown Lands Act 1989.

Policy instruments supporting soil management include State Environmental Planning Policy (Rural Lands) 2008, as well as the older Policy for Sustainable Agriculture in NSW (NSW Agriculture 1998), the NSW Soil Policy: Looking forward, acting now (1987) (currently being revised) and the Total Catchment Management Policy (1987).

Regional and local level activities

Many response activities are under way within the catchment management regions of NSW (see, for example, catchment action plans in 'Developing responses' below).

The SoilWatch performance monitoring system is being used by most CMAs. It complements and supplements surveillance monitoring throughout the state.

Locally, the Landcare network provides an invaluable contribution to integrated natural resource management at a grass-roots level. Nationally there are over 4000 Landcare groups and almost 2000 of these are registered in NSW. Groups are involved with a wide variety of land and water management issues, which can include weed control, revegetation, soil erosion by water, streambank erosion, river corridor/estuary corridor degradation, farmland improvements and urban environment protection. The projects and issues addressed by Landcare groups can often directly or indirectly assist in effective soil conservation and promoting the sustainable use of soils. The importance that Landcare plays in education and community awareness on natural resource issues, including soils, is also of extreme importance.

National level activities

The National Committee on Soil and Terrain coordinates and provides advice on soil and land assessment standards and policy. The committee previously commissioned a soil policy discussion paper (Campbell 2008), which was followed by a stakeholder survey and a stocktake of Australia's soil research development and extension capacity (DAFF 2011).

National protocols for monitoring water erosion, wind erosion, soil acidification and soil carbon have been developed and published (CSIRO 2011).

As part of the Clean Energy Futures project, the Federal Government has established and funded a Carbon Farming Initiative. This includes the soil carbon sequestration segment of a national carbon trading market which it is expected will lead to large additions to soil carbon and, as a result, improved soil condition.

Developing responses

The following policies and plans designed to protect land and soil resources are being developed.

• Taking on the Challenge: NSW Salinity Strategy (DLWC 2000) operated from 2000 to 2010. Although it has come to an end, it may be replaced by a new document for coordinating a whole-of-government response to salinity management within the state. Emerging issues that will need to be considered in the near future are the management of saline water released during the extraction of coal seam gas (CSG) and implementation of the Murray–Darling Basin Plan, which will require water quality and salinity management plans for each constituent river basin.
• As an update to the NSW Soil Policy: Looking forward, acting now (1987), the State Government is preparing a NSW Soil Strategy. The new strategy will guide the direction and strategic vision for the management, protection and, where possible, improvement of soils in NSW.
• Catchment action plans (CAPs) are currently being prepared for all of NSW's 13 CMA regions. The CAPs are key documents that coordinate and drive the effort to improve natural resources across their regions. They describe a whole-of-government approach to soil condition and sustainable land management targets at the regional scale and specify regional targets and activities to contribute to the achievement of statewide targets. The updated plans will set the direction for investment in natural resource management over the next 10 years.

Future opportunities

Opportunities for further protecting soils and landscapes in NSW include:

• rapid assessment of risks to assets as a result of rainfall events in areas burnt by wildfires
• incorporating acid sulfate soil management in local environmental plans.